rapeseed

Etymology and common names

The term “rape” derives from the Latin word for turnip, rapum . ^[3]

Rapeseed is known by many common names in the English language. Some names-have-been applied only to some subspecies (subsp.), Forms (f.), Gold varieties (var.) Of B. napus . B. napus = B. napus subsp. napus = B. napus subsp. napus f. napus .

This list is from the Germplasm Resources Information Network , ^[1] which attributes the names to other sources:

• Brassica napus – rape
  • B. napus subsp. napus – Argentina canola, canola, rapeseed, oilseed rape, and rape
    • B. napus subsp. napus f. annua – annual rape and summer rape (treated as B. napus var annua )
    • B. napus subsp. napus f. napus – swede rape (Treated as B. napus var. biennis )
  • B. napus subsp. napus var. pabularia – Hanover-salad, kale rape, and Siberian kale
  • B. napus subsp. rapifera – rutabaga , swede (Treated as B. napus var. napobrassica ), Swedish turnip (Treated as B. napus napobrassica group), and winter rape

Description

Brassica napus grows to 100 cm (39 in) high with lower leaves pinnatifid and glaucous ^{[4] [5] [6]} and the upper leaves clasping the stem. The flowers are yellow and about 17 mm (0.67 in) across. B. napus differs from B. nigra , purpose can be distinguished by the upper leaves qui do not clasp the stem, from B. rapa by smaller petals qui icts are less than 13 mm (0.51 in) across. ^[5]

Ecology

In north-east of Ireland B. napus and B. rapa are recorded as roadside yards and waste ground. ^[7]

Cultivation and uses

In 1973, Canadian agricultural scientists launched a marketing campaign to promote canola consumption. ^[8]

Today, rapeseed is grown for the production of animal feed , edible vegetable oils, and biodiesel ; leading producers include the European Union, Canada, China, India, and Australia. In India, 6.7 million tons are produced annually. ^[9] According to the United States Department of Agriculture , rapeseed was the third-leading source of vegetable oil in the world in 2000, after soybean and palm oil . ^{[ citation needed ]} It is the world’s second-leading source of protein meal after soybean. ^[10]

The Food and Agriculture Organization reports 36 million tones of rapeseed were produced in the 2003-2004 season, and estimated 58.4 million tones in the 2010-2011 season. ^[11] In Europe, rapeseed is Primarily cultivated for animal feed, ^{[ citation needed ]} due to its very high lipid and medium protein happy. ^{[ quote needed ]}

Natural rapeseed oil contains 50% erucic acid . Wild seeds also contain high levels of glucosinolates (mustard oil glucosindes), a chemical compound that has been significantly reduced in the nutritional value of rapeseed press cakes for animal feed. In North America, the term “canola” -a contraction of Can ada and ola , meaning oil ^[12] -became widely used to refer to rapeseed, and is now a trade-name for “double low” (low erucic acid and low glucosinolate) rapeseed. ^[13]The rapeseed is the harvested component of the crop. The crop is also grown as a winter crop crop . The plant is plowed in the soil or used as bedding. On some organic operationssheepor cattle are allowed to grow on the plants.

Processing of rapeseed for oil production produces rapeseed meal as a byproduct. The byproduct is a high-protein animal feed, competitive with soybean. ^[10] The feed is used mostly for cattle feeding, but also for pigs and chickens . The meal has a low content of the glucosinolates responsible for metabolism disruption in cattle and pigs. ^[14] Rapeseed ” oil cake ” is also used as a fertilizer in China, and may also be used for ornamentals, such as bonsai . ^{[ quote needed ]}

Rapeseed produces great quantities of nectar , and honeybees produce a light-colored but peppery honey from it. ^{[ citation needed ]} It must be quickly removed and granulated in the honeycomb . The honey is usually blended with milder honeys, if used for table use or sold as bakery grade.

Oilseed rape is partly self-fertile and is pollinated by wind, gravity, and insects. Insect pollination increases yield, but the effect is cultivar-dependent. ^[15]

“Total loss” and “oil and oil” are usually more expensive. Some countries, such as Austria, have banned the use of petroleum-based chainsaw oil. ^[16] These “biolubricants” are reported to be comparable to conventional mineral oil products, ^[16] but no consensus is yet evident.

Rapeseed has-been Researched have a moyen de Containing radionuclides That the contaminated soil partner after the Chernobyl disaster . ^{[17] [18] [19]} Rapeseed was found to be more important than other grains, and only about 3 to 6% of the radionuclides chain. As oil repels radionuclides, canola oil free from contaminants being concentrated in other parts of the plant could be produced. The rest of the plant (straw, roots, seed pods, etc.) could then be recycled by plowing back into the soil. ^[17]

Biodiesel

Rapeseed oil is used as diesel fuel, or as biodiesel , straight in heated fuel systems, or blended with petroleum distillates for powering motor vehicles. Biodiesel can be used in combination with fossil-fuel diesel in ratios varying from 2% to 20% biodiesel. Owing to the costs of growing, crushing, and refining rapeseed biodiesel, rapeseed-derived biodiesel from new oil costs more than standard diesel fuel, so diesel fuels are commonly made from used oil. Rapeseed oil is the preferred oil for biodiesel production in most of Europe, accounting for about 80% of the feedstock, ^[20]Partly Because rapeseed Produces more oil per unit of land area Compared to other oil sources, Such As soybeans, canola goal Primarily Because oil: has a Significantly lower spot gel Than Most other vegetable oils.

Currently Rapeseed is grown with high levels of nitrogen-containing fertilizers, and the manufacture of These Generates N ₂ O . An estimated 3-5% of nitrogen provided for fertilizer is converted to N ₂ O. ^[21]

Cultivars

Canola was originally a trademark, but is now a generic term in North America for edible varieties of rapeseed oil. In Canada, an official definition of canola is codified in Canadian law.

A variety of rapeseed developed in 1998 is considered the most disease- and drought-resistant canola. This and other recent varieties have been produced using genetic engineering. In 2009, 90% of the planted crops in Canada were genetically modified, herbicide-tolerant canola varieties. ^[22]

Health effects

Rapeseed oil is one of the oldest vegetable oils, but historically was used in high volumes of erucic acid, which is damaging to cardiac muscle of animals, and glucosinolates, which is less nutritious in animal feed. ^[23] Rapeseed oil can contain up to 54% erucic acid. ^[24] Food-grade canola oil derived from rapeseed cultivars Also Known As rapeseed 00 oil, low erucic acid rapeseed oil, LEAR oil, and rapeseed canola-equivalent oil, has-been generally recognized as safe by the US Food and Drug Administration . ^[25] Canola oil is limited to a maximum of 2% erucic acid by weight in the USA ^[25]and 5% in the EU, ^[26] with special regulations for infant food. These low levels of erucic acid are not believed to cause harm in human neonates . ^[25] [26]

In 1981, deadly outbreak of disease in Spain, Known As toxic oil syndrome ,^[27] was caused by the consumption of colza oil (a cousin of rapeseed oil procured from a similar species of B. rapa) for industrial use that was fraudulently sold as olive oil to be consumed in cooking, salads, and other foods. Symptoms appeared as a typical pneumonia with interstitial infiltrates on chest X-ray, complicated by pulmonary hypertension in a significant number of cases.^[28]

Rapeseed pollen contains known allergens . ^[29] [30] Whether rape pollen causes hay fever , because it is an insect-pollinated ( entomophilous ) crop, and is caused by wind-pollinated plants. The inhalation of oilseed rape may cause asthma in agricultural workers. ^[31]

In 1985, Augusto Odone , with the help of British chemist Don Suddaby, combined rapeseed oil with olive oil Lorenzo’s oil which halted progression of Adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD) in Lorenzo Odone

Production

Worldwide production of rapeseed (including canola) has grown sixfold between 1975 and 2007. The production of canola and rapeseed since 1975. Since 2002, production of biodiesel has increased steadily in the United States and reached 6 million metric tons in 2006. Rapeseed oil is a good source of fuel oil. World production was also expected to trend upwards between 2005 and 2015 as biodiesel content requirements in Europe go into effect. ^[32] Every ton of rapeseed yields about 400 kg of oil. Rapeseed oil takes between 135 and 150 days to mature, with some varieties only taking 110. ^[9]

Top rapeseed producers in millions of tonnes ^[33] [34]

Country	1965	1975	1985	1995	2000	2005	2007	2009	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016
Canada	0.5	1.8	3.5	6.4	7.2	9.4	9.6	11.8	14.2	15.4	17.9	15.5	18.4	18.4
china	1.1	1.5	5.6	9.8	11.3	13.0	10.5	13.5	13.4	14.0	14.4	14.8	14.9	15.3
india	1.5	2.3	3.1	5.8	5.8	7.6	7.4	7.2	8.2	6.8	7.8	7.9	6.3	6.8
la France	0.3	0.5	1.4	2.8	3.5	4.5	4.7	5.6	5.4	5.5	4.4	5.5	5.3	4.7
germany	0.3	0.6	1.2	3.1	3.6	5.0	5.3	6.3	3.9	4.8	5.8	6.2	5.0	4.6
australia	<0.007	<0.06	0.1	0.6	1.8	1.4	1.1	1.9	2.4	3.4	4.1	3.8	3.5	2.9
poland	0.5	0.7	1.1	1.4	1.0	1.4	2.1	2.5	1.9	1.9	2.7	3.3	2.7	2.2
United Kingdom	<0.007	0.06	0.9	1.2	1.2	1.9	2.1	2.0	2.8	2.6	2.1	2.5	2.5	1.8
United States	<0.007	<0.06	<0.03	0.2	0.9	0.7	0.7	0.7	0.7	1.1	0.9	1.1	1.3	1.4
Czech Republic	0.07	0.1	0.3	0.7	0.8	0.7	1.0	1.1	1.0	1.1	1.4	1.5	1.3	1.4
romania	0.01	0.02	0.04	0.04	0.1	0.1	0.4	0.6	0.7	0.2	0.7	1.1	0.9	1.3
Ukraine	<0.007	<0.06	<0.03	<0.1	0.1	0.3	1.0	1.9	1.4	1.2	2.4	2.2	1.7	1.1
russia	N / A	N / A	N / A	0.1	0.1	0.3	0.6	0.7	1.1	1.0	1.4	1.3	1.0	1.0
hungary	0008	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.3	0.5	0.6	0.5	0.4	0.5	0.7	0.6	0.6
belarus	N / A	N / A	N / A	0.03	0.07	0.1	0.2	0.6	0.4	0.7	0.7	0.7	0.4	0.5
denmark	0.05	0.1	0.5	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.6	0.6	0.5	0.5	0.7	0.7	0.8	0.5
World Total	5.2	8.8	19.2	34.2	39.5	46.4	50.5	61.6	62.5	64.8	72.5	73.8	71.2	68.9

Pests and diseases

Animal pests

• Bertha armyworms ( Mamestra configurata )
• Bronzed field beetle ( Adelium brevicorne ) larvae
• Cyst nematode ( Heterodera schachtii )
• Diamondback moths ( Plutella xylostella )
• Flea beetles ( Phyllotreta sp.)
• Grasshoppers (order Orthoptera)
• Harlequin bug ( Murgantia histrionica )
• Lygus bugs ( Lygus spp.)
• Pollen beetle ( Meligethes aeneus )
• Root Maggots ( Delia spp.)
• Snails and slugs
• Large white butterflies ( Pieris brassicae ) ^[35]

Diseases

• Beet western yellows virus (Luteoviridae family)
• Blackleg (caused by the species fungus Leptosphaeria maculans )
• Clubroot (caused by the protist Plasmodiophora brassicae )
• Sclerotinia white stem rot (caused by the fungus genus Sclerotinia )
• White rust disease (caused by the fungus species Albugo candida )
• Verticillium wilt (caused by the fungus species Verticillium longisporum )
• Light-leaf spot (caused by the fungus species Pyrenopeziza brassicae )

Genome sequencing and genetics

Bayer CropScience (in cooperation with BGI-Shenzhen , China, Keygene NV, the Netherlands, and the University of Queensland, Australia) annoncé It Had sequenced the Entire genome of B. napus and Its genomes are present in B. rapa and B. oleracea in 2009. The “A” genome component of the amphidiploid rapeseed species B. napus is currently being sequenced by the Multinational Brassica Genome Project. ^{[36] [ needs update ]}

Genetically modified organism controversy

The Monsanto company has genetically engineered (GMO) new cultivars of rapeseed to be resistant to the effects of its herbicide , Roundup . They Sought-have compensation from farmers found to-have the Roundup Ready gene in Canola In Their fields without paying a license fee. These farmers have claimed the ‘Roundup Ready’ gene was blown into their fields and crossed with unaltered canola. Roundup in non-canola fields to kill weeds before planting, ‘Roundup Ready’ Volunteers are left behind, causing extra expense to rid their fields of weeds.

In the United States, the Supreme Court of Canada, Monsanto’s Patent Infringement of the Case for the Growing of ‘Roundup Ready’ in its 2004 ruling on Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser . The case garnered international controversy, as a short-sanctioned legitimation for the global patent protection of genetically modified crops . However, Schmeiser was not required to pay damages, as he did not benefit financially from the GMO crop in his field. ^{[ quote needed ]}

In March 2008, an out-of-court settlement between Monsanto and Schmeiser agreed that Monsanto would clean up the entire GMO-canola crop on Schmeiser’s farm, at a cost of about CAD $ 660. ^[37]

See also

• Triangle of U

References